Authoritarianism

What Is Authoritarianism?

Authoritarianism, a political system that rejects pluralism in favor of strong central power to maintain the status quo, is like a fortress built around a single ruler or elite group. This regime maintains its grip on power through repression and exclusion of any opposition, much like how a king keeps his subjects in line with strict laws and harsh punishments.

Defining Authoritarianism

Juan Linz defined authoritarianism as a system characterized by limited pluralism, political legitimacy based on emotional appeals, minimal mobilization of the populace, and ill-defined executive powers. These regimes lack free and competitive elections, often resorting to fraudulent or non-competitive ones instead.

Historical Trends

Since 1946, we’ve seen a fluctuating trend in authoritarian states—increasing until the mid-1970s, declining from then until 2000, and increasing again since. Dictatorships often start with democratic backsliding rather than a coup, making it difficult to predict their rise.

Characteristics of Authoritarian Regimes

Authoritarian regimes maintain concentrated government power through repression and exclusion of challengers. They use political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the regime’s goals, much like how a conductor leads an orchestra towards a single, harmonious performance.

Institutional Trappings

These regimes often adopt democratic institutions such as constitutions, which serve roles akin to operating manuals or blueprints. However, unlike in democracies, these constitutions do not set limits on executive authority, allowing for arbitrary deprivation of civil liberties and little tolerance for opposition.

The Concept of Authoritarian Constitutionalism

Mark Tushnet’s concept of authoritarian constitutionalism refers to the use of constitution-making as a means for elites to protect their own property rights or constrain autocrats’ behavior. This differs from liberal constitutionalist regimes, purely authoritarian regimes, and hybrid regimes.

Examples and Characteristics

Singapore is often cited as an example of an authoritarian constitutionalist regime. It imposes sanctions on political dissidents but allows for reasonably open discussion and criticism of policies. Free and fair elections are held with close monitoring, reflecting occasional responsiveness to public opinion.

Economic Development and Authoritarianism

Economic development increases the likelihood of democratization, yet there is insufficient evidence that it causes democratization directly. Authoritarian regimes incorporate similar institutions as democratic ones but use them to reinforce their power, much like how a puppeteer manipulates strings to control marionettes.

Electoral Systems

Democratic elections are inclusive, competitive, and fair, while authoritarian elections often involve fraud and constraints on opposition participation. Large-scale state spending favors incumbents, permitting some parties but not others, and prohibiting independent candidates from running.

Interactions with Elites and the Masses

Authoritarian regimes balance interactions with other elites and the masses by using co-optation or repression as needed. They increasingly rely on manipulating information to control public perception, much like a magician controlling an audience’s attention.

Systemic Weaknesses

The systemic weaknesses of authoritarian regimes include weak legitimacy, overreliance on coercion, and over-centralization of decision-making. These factors make them fragile, except for the Chinese Communist Party which has managed to endure through norm-bound succession politics, meritocratic considerations, functional institutional specialization, and public participation institutions.

Violence in Authoritarian Systems

Violence is a common characteristic of authoritarian systems, often arising from the lack of independent third parties. Leaders who survive coup attempts often purge rivals, leading to longer tenures. Coup-proofing strategies include placing key groups in the military and creating parallel armed forces.

Types of Political Regimes

The three main types of political regimes are democracies, totalitarian regimes, and authoritarian regimes. Modern forms of authoritarianism are linked to mass politics, starting with the French Revolution. Authoritarian regimes have a concentration of power in a leader or elite but allow social institutions outside governmental control.

Subtypes of Authoritarian Regimes

Authoritarian regimes can be categorized into subtypes such as traditional authoritarian regimes, bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes, and corporatist authoritarian regimes. These subtypes have distinct characteristics shaped by various factors, including racial and ethnic ‘democracies’ like South Africa under apartheid.

Post-Totalitarian Regimes

Post-totalitarian regimes include the Russian Federation and Soviet Eastern Bloc states with a decline in ideological orthodoxy and repression. Chinese state repression increased after Xi Jinping’s rise to power in 2012, making it clear that authoritarianism can take many forms.

Authoritarianism and Democracy

Authoritarian regimes can be personalistic or populist, with examples including post-colonial Africa, Argentina under Juan Perón, and Russia under Vladimir Putin. A typology of authoritarian regimes includes machine (oligarchic party dictatorships), bossism (autocratic party dictatorships), juntas (oligarchic military dictatorships), and strongman (autocratic military dictatorships).

Single-Party Regimes

Single-party regimes are better at developing institutions than military regimes but often initiate military conflicts to maintain control. Authoritarianism is linked to collectivism, where individual rights are subsumed by group goals.

Left-Wing and Right-Wing Authoritarianism

The concept of left-wing authoritarianism as a psychological construct has been criticized, but evidence for both left-wing and right-wing authoritarianism exists. Authoritarianism and democracy are not mutually exclusive, with some democracies possessing authoritarian elements and vice versa.

Illiberal Democracies

Illiberal democracies lack key features of liberal democracies such as the rule of law and protections for minority groups. Democratic nations have lower rates of democide (murder by government) and corruption, while research shows that terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom.

Subnational Authoritarian Enclaves

Within national democratic governments, subnational authoritarian enclaves may exist. A competitive authoritarian regime combines formal democratic institutions with abuse of state power by incumbents. These regimes differ from fully authoritarian ones in having regular elections and a significant opposition presence.

Authoritarianism and Fascism

Authoritarianism is linked to fascism, but fascist regimes are characterized by more distinguishing traits than simply authoritarian control. Totalitarianism refers to the most tyrannical strain of authoritarian systems where the ruling elite exerts near-total control over society.

Differences Between Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism

The distinction between authoritarianism and totalitarianism lies in the existence of social and economic institutions outside governmental control. Authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of fear and rewards, creating a kleptocracy. Unlike totalitarianism, authoritarianism does not aim to change the world or human nature.

Historical Context

Authoritarian regimes before World War II were short-lived and understudied. Post-World War II saw the replacement of authoritarian regimes with democratic ones in many countries, including Western Europe where pluralism and freedom of expression were embraced. In reaction to centralism of the Nazi state, West Germany exercised ‘separation of powers’ and placed law enforcement in the hands of states.

Anti-Authoritarianism

Anti-authoritarianism was strong in Western Europe due to active resistance and fears over superpowers. The fall of the Berlin Wall led to a decline in authoritarian regimes but not revolt against authority in general. The idea that liberal democracy was the final form of government gained popularity, but it has largely failed in practice since 2010.

The Arab Spring

The Arab Spring did not lead to enduring democratization in most countries. Since 2005, there has been a ‘democratic recession,’ with many countries experiencing declines in political rights and civil liberties. The Freedom House reported that only 62 countries experienced improvements while 113 showed declines from 2006 to 2018.

Resurgence of Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism has made a resurgence globally, with the Beijing Consensus being a successful model for some countries. Globalization, populism, and neo-nationalism have contributed to its spread. Social media’s role in spreading unverified information and the financial crisis of 2007-2008 have also played a part.

The Alt-Right Movement

The Alt-Right movement has consolidated into a broader far-right ideology, normalizing white supremacy and promoting the idea of a ‘white victimhood’ to appeal to a wider audience. This new discourse has led to an increase in mainstream appeal of white supremacism, with the movement co-opting debates on immigration and globalization.

Far-Right Extremism

Far-right extremism promotes conspiracy theories, including the Great Replacement and White genocide, and aims to achieve a white ethnostate through violent means. Authoritarian regimes such as Venezuela, Nazi Germany, and Stalinist Russia are often regarded as totalitarian systems.

In conclusion, authoritarianism is a complex and multifaceted system that has evolved over time. It thrives on the suppression of pluralism and the concentration of power in the hands of a few. As we navigate the challenges of our modern world, understanding these dynamics becomes crucial for fostering more inclusive and just societies.