Antisemitism

Antisemitism: A Persistent Structure of Hostile Beliefs

Antisemitism is hostility to or prejudice against Jews, driven by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or religion, often manifesting in various forms of hatred, discrimination, and violence. This phenomenon has historically been encouraged by anti-Judaism and is a form of racism. The term ‘antisemitism’ was coined in the 19th century to describe this phenomenon, which emerged from Christian communities in Europe during the Middle Ages.

The Birth of Antisemitism

Antisemitic tendencies have historically been encouraged by anti-Judaism and are a form of racism. The term ‘antisemitism’ was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a ‘scientific-sounding term’ for Judenhass (Jew-hatred). The word ‘Semitic’ was coined by August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781 to designate the Semitic group of languages, and its origin is found in responses to orientalist views, such as those of Ernest Renan. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word ‘Semitismus’ interchangeably with ‘Judentum’ to denote both Jewry and Jewishness.

Wilhelm Marr’s Antisemiten-Liga

The term ‘antisemitism’ was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte. Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic League) in 1879. The word ‘anti-Semitism’ was borrowed into English from German in 1881.

Modern Definitions and Controversies

The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued that using the hyphenated form ‘Semitism’ implies that the term encompasses all meanings, whereas Emil Fackenheim advocated for an unhyphenated spelling to distinguish between antisemitic attitudes and criticism of Israel. The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, historians Deborah Lipstadt, Padraic O’Hare, Yehuda Bauer, James Carroll, and others support the unhyphenated spelling. The AP Stylebook adopted this spelling in 2021, and many Holocaust museums have followed suit.

Definition of Antisemitism

Holocaust scholar Helen Fein defined antisemitism as a persistent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews. Dietz Bering elaborated that to antisemites, Jews are seen as a collective with inherent bad traits. Swiss historian Sonja Weinberg described modern antisemitism as conceptual innovation, using ‘science’ to defend itself and promoting myths.

Contemporary Examples

The EUMC working definition was adopted by various organizations, including the European Parliament, US Department of State, UK College of Policing, and International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. Critics argue that the IHRA’s Working definition has been used to censor criticism of Israel.

New Definitions

New definitions were published in 2021, the Nexus Document and the Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism, in response to perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition. Identification with antisemitism was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century.

Historical Context

The term ‘Judeophobia’ was first used by Leon Pinsker in his pamphlet ‘Auto-Emancipation’ in September 1882, and he regarded it as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: ‘The German people is anti-Semitic.’ It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race.

The Holocaust and Its Aftermath

After 1945, the term ‘antisemitism’ acquired pejorative connotations due to the Nazi genocide against Jews. The study of antisemitism is politically controversial due to differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Different Forms of Antisemitism

There are two competing views: eternalism (seeing antisemitism as separate and exceptional) and contextualism (treating it as a type of racism in its historical context). Antisemitism manifests itself in various ways, including social, economic, religious, and political forms.

Taxonomies of Antisemitism

Differences in chronology and distribution create difficulties in defining different kinds of anti-Semitism. Taxonomies categorize the forms of antisemitism, but with varying numbers and definitions. William Brustein names four categories of antisemitism: religious, racial, economic, and political.

Historical Development

The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:

• Political and economic antisemitism
• Theological or religious antisemitism (also called ‘traditional antisemitism’)
• Nationalistic antisemitism
• Racial antisemitism

Economic Antisemitism

Examples of economic antisemitic canards include:

• Jews controlling the world finances
• Jews being savages incapable of honest labor
• Jews forming a financial cabal seeking world domination

Racial Antisemitism

Racial antisemitism views Jews as an inferior race compared to their host nations. It gained mainstream acceptance in the late 19th century and early 20th century, particularly during the eugenics movement.

Political Antisemitism

Political antisemitism is hostility toward Jews based on the belief that they seek national or world power. It often blames Jews for social problems.

New Antisemitism

Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel. They argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly.

Historical Incidents

The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria, the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time. Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.

Medieval Period

In the Middle Ages, the Visigothic kingdom issued anti-Jewish edicts, and both kings and the Church created social aggression. The medieval Islamic world allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than in Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain until the Iberian Peninsula’s Muslim pogroms.

Modern Era

The Shepherds’ Crusades and Rintfleisch massacres involved attacks, followed by expulsions like the 1290 banishment from England and 1421 expulsion from Austria. The Franciscans and Dominicans promoted antisemitism through their preaching. Jews were scapegoated for the Black Death epidemics, leading to numerous persecutions.

Modern Incidents

The Dreyfus Affair in the late 19th and early 20th centuries highlighted antisemitism in France. Adolf Stoecker founded an antisemitic political party, while scholars debate whether Karl Marx’s essay ‘On The Jewish Question’ is antisemitic.

Contemporary Antisemitism

Holocaust denial is a claim that the Nazi genocide never happened or was substantially exaggerated. Political movements like neo-Nazism and neofascism practice Holocaust denial. Analogies between Israel’s treatment of Palestinians and the Nazis’ treatment of Jews are sometimes compared to Holocaust inversion, which downplays the severity of the Holocaust.

Modern Incidents

Soviet antisemitism has continued since WWII, with state-sponsored incidents and conspiracy theories. In the USSR, antisemitism was used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with Joseph Stalin’s conflict with Leon Trotsky. The ‘rootless cosmopolitan’ campaign in 1948 targeted Yiddish-language poets, writers, and artists.

Global Antisemitism

The still-extant Novosti Press Agency, a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the CPSU in which he claimed that ‘Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army,’ blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for ‘subversive activities’ during the 1968 Prague Spring.

Modern Incidents

The rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008. In Eastern Europe, the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government.

Conclusion

The persistence of antisemitism in various forms underscores its deep-rooted nature. From ancient times to modern-day conflicts, this prejudice has manifested through different lenses but retains a common thread of hostility towards Jews. Understanding and addressing these issues requires ongoing education and vigilance against the subtle and overt manifestations of antisemitic beliefs.