Second Fitna

Understanding the Second Fitna: A Turbulent Period in Islamic History

The Second Fitna was a period of civil war that shook the very foundations of the early Umayyad Caliphate. It began with Mu’awiya I’s death and lasted for about twelve years, leaving an indelible mark on the history of Islam. This conflict not only tested the loyalty of the Muslim community but also laid the groundwork for future sectarian divisions within the faith.

The Roots of Conflict

Was the issue of succession truly settled with the First Fitna, or did it merely lie dormant until the death of Mu’awiya? Historian Fred Donner suggests that contentions over leadership had not been resolved and resurfaced with Mu’awiya’s passing. The Umayyads faced a dilemma: should they follow the precedent of election or embrace civil war as a means to settle succession? Bernard Lewis, an orientalist, notes that Mu’awiya chose hereditary succession, which was uncharted territory in Islamic history.

Yazid’s Nomination and Opposition

When Mu’awiya nominated his son Yazid as his successor, he sparked a firestorm of opposition. The sons of prominent companions like Abdullah ibn Umar opposed the nomination, seeing it as a corruption of the caliphate into a monarchy. To secure allegiance, Mu’awiya convened a shura in Damascus and used diplomacy and bribes to persuade representatives from various provinces. However, this move only intensified tensions within the community.

Husayn’s Tragic End

Could Husayn have avoided his fate at Karbala? The pro-Alid groups in Kufa invited Husayn to lead their revolt against Yazid. Husayn, however, was unaware of the treacherous situation and sent his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil to assess the situation. When Muslim was executed by Ibn Ziyad, Husayn left for Kufa but was intercepted at Karbala. After a few days of negotiations, Husayn refused to submit and was killed along with 70 companions.

The Rise of Ibn al-Zubayr

Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr’s opposition to Yazid posed another significant challenge to the Umayyads. After the death of Mu’awiya, Ibn al-Zubayr secretly took allegiance in Mecca and refused to recognize Yazid as caliph. This led to a series of conflicts, including the Battle of al-Harra where Medinese renounced their allegiance to Yazid and expelled him from Medina. Yazid dispatched an army under Muslim ibn Uqba to reconquer the Hejaz but was defeated in this battle.

The Fall of Ibn al-Zubayr

With Yazid’s death, Mu’awiya II became caliph but had limited authority. Marwan ibn al-Hakam succeeded him and faced opposition from the Zubayrid supporters. The two sides clashed at the Battle of Marj Rahit in August 684, resulting in the slaughter of pro-Zubayrid Qays and many of their leaders. Marwan’s accession led to Syria being reunited under the Umayyads, but he faced further challenges from Ibn al-Zubayr. Eventually, Hajjaj besieged Mecca and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in March 692, marking the end of the civil war.

The Aftermath: Administrative Reforms

With the victory of Abd al-Malik, Umayyad authority was restored. He enacted significant administrative changes, centralizing power and developing a professional army. The Battle of Marj Rahit also led to the development of tribal rifts between the Qays–Kalb split in Syria and the Mudar–Azd alliance in Iraq. This resulted in two tribal confederations or ‘super-groups’ across the caliphate: the North Arabs and South Arabs. Abd al-Malik’s reforms solidified hereditary rule, giving it a more Muslim character through fixed salaries for active servicemen and the introduction of a single Islamic currency.

The Legacy of the Second Fitna

How did the events of the Second Fitna shape future developments in Islam? The Battle of Karbala contributed to the definitive break between Shi’a and Sunni denominations, transforming Shi’ism into a religious phenomenon. Mukhtar al-Thaqafi’s revolt led to the introduction of novel theological concepts that influenced later development of Shi’ism. Ibn al-Zubayr’s legacy continued to be formulated into hadiths during his lifetime, eventually developing into an established doctrine in Islam. The idea of the Islamic Messiah, the Mahdi, was popularized by Mukhtar’s application of the title to Ali’s son Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.

The legacy of the Second Fitna is a testament to the complex and often tumultuous nature of early Islamic history. It not only reshaped political structures but also deepened sectarian divides, leaving an enduring impact on the faith that continues to resonate today.