Science

What is Science?

Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe.

The Branches of Modern Science

Modern science is typically divided into two or three major branches: natural sciences, behavioural sciences, and formal sciences. Applied sciences use scientific knowledge for practical purposes. These distinctions can sometimes blur, but they provide a useful framework to understand the vast expanse of human inquiry.

A Brief History of Science

The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest identifiable predecessors to modern science dating back to the Bronze Age in Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Scientific research deteriorated after the fall of the Western Roman Empire during the Early Middle Ages but flourished again during the Medieval renaissances.

The Renaissance and Beyond

During the Renaissance, new developments in optics played a role in the inception of the Renaissance, challenging metaphysical ideas on perception and contributing to technology improvements like the camera obscura and telescope. This period saw significant figures such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Francis Bacon, who emphasized individual thought and experimentation over contemplation.

The 19th Century: A Time of Great Discoveries

The 19th century witnessed significant developments in modern science. Key figures include Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, who proposed evolution by natural selection, and Gregor Mendel, who outlined principles of biological inheritance. Additionally, John Dalton’s atomic theory, the laws of thermodynamics, and the electromagnetic theory were established during this time.

The 20th Century: A Time of Breakthroughs

In the 20th century, developments in antibiotics and artificial fertilizers improved global living standards. Environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, and climate change became public concerns. Scientific experimentation grew in scale and funding, leading to international collaborations despite armed conflicts.

The 21st Century: Advancements and Challenges

In the 21st century, the Human Genome Project was completed, and induced pluripotent human stem cells were created in 2006. The Higgs boson discovery was confirmed in 2013, and gravitational waves were first observed in 2015. A direct image of a black hole’s accretion disc was presented in 2019.

The Structure of Science

Modern science is divided into three major branches: natural science, social science, and formal science. Natural science encompasses life science and physical science, which are further divided into specialized disciplines. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history in the 16th century.

Social Science and Formal Science

social science studies human behavior and societies with various disciplines and theoretical perspectives, often using methods such as historical analysis, case studies, and statistical approaches. Formal science generates knowledge through abstract structures and deductive reasoning, differing from empirical sciences by relying solely on logical inference.

Applied Science

Applied science uses scientific principles to attain practical goals, including engineering and medicine. Computational science applies computing power to simulate real-world situations and combines with machine learning and artificial intelligence. Interdisciplinary science involves combining two or more disciplines into one field, such as bioinformatics or cognitive sciences.

The Scientific Method

Scientific research can be classified as basic (search for knowledge) or applied (search for practical solutions), with basic research often leading to technological advances. The scientific method involves using principles such as objective reality, natural laws and mathematics to explain events of nature in a reproducible way. It includes forming hypotheses, testing predictions, and refining theories through experimentation and peer review.

The Role of Theory and Hypothesis

A theory is a well-supported explanation for a group of observations, while a hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a single observation. The scientific method allows for creative problem solving while minimizing subjective bias, with intersubjective verifiability being essential to creating scientific knowledge.

Scientific Literature and Peer Review

Scientific literature includes published journals that document research results, and the number of active periodicals has increased over time. However, the replication crisis in parts of social and life sciences affects the reliability of study results, and metascience aims to improve quality and reduce waste.

Pseudoscience and Junk Science

An area of study or speculation that claims to be science but lacks legitimacy due to a lack of honesty or rigor in evaluation may be referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science. There are different schools of thought in philosophy of science, including empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created through observation and generalization, and rationalism, which holds that knowledge is created by human intellect rather than observation.

The Process of Observation and Evaluation

Observation and evaluation in science often take place within a paradigm, which is a logically consistent ‘portrait’ of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. Paradigms can shift based on significant observational anomalies, but this does not imply relativism.

The Scientific Community

The scientific community consists of interacting scientists working together through peer review, discussion, and debate. Scientists conduct research to advance knowledge in various fields and pursue careers in academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.

Science Education and Public Policy

Science education is embedded in school curricula, supplemented by online content and media. Scientific literacy focuses on understanding the scientific method, statistics, and core scientific fields. Mass media often struggle to accurately depict scientific claims, while science magazines cater to a wider readership.

Anti-Science Attitudes

Anti-science attitudes exist among some fractions of society, driven by factors such as perceived scientific authority, marginalization of social groups, contradictions with existing beliefs, and ineffective communication. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left.

Conclusion

Science has been described as the tool for separating valid from invalid claims. It’s a journey that continues to evolve, with each discovery leading us closer to understanding our universe and ourselves. As we navigate this complex landscape, let us remember the importance of curiosity, collaboration, and critical thinking in shaping our future.