Police

The police are a constituted body empowered by a state to enforce law, protect public order, and ensure citizen safety. Their powers include arrest and the use of force legitimized by the state. Police forces are usually public sector services funded through taxes, but their role can be controversial due to corruption, brutality, and authoritarian rule. The term ‘police’ comes from Middle French ‘police,’ derived from Latin ‘politia,’ meaning citizenship or civil polity.

Early Policing Systems

In ancient Egypt evidence of law enforcement exists as far back as the Old Kingdom period. There are records of an office known as ‘Judge Commandant of the Police’ dating to the fourth dynasty. During the fifth dynasty at the end of the Old Kingdom period, warriors armed with wooden sticks were tasked with guarding public places and apprehending criminals. They used trained monkeys, baboons, and dogs in guard duties and catching criminals. After the Old Kingdom collapsed, Bedouins were hired to guard borders and protect trade caravans.

In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used as police. In Athens, the Scythian Archers guarded public meetings and assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to citizens. Athenian police forces were supervised by the Areopagus. In Sparta, the Ephors maintained public order as judges and used the Royal guard of honor as enforcers. There were separate authorities supervising women, children, and agricultural issues.

Roman Policing

In the Roman Empire, the army played a major role in providing security. Roman soldiers detached from their legions carried out law enforcement tasks. The Praetorian Guard acted as an elite bodyguard and intelligence-gathering unit. Local watchmen were hired by cities to provide extra security. Lictors, civil servants, could carry out arrests and inflict punishments at their magistrate’s command. Magistrates such as tresviri capitales investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims had to organize and manage the prosecution themselves.

Under Augustus, 14 wards were created with seven squads of 1,000 men called vigiles, who acted as night watchmen and firemen. In addition to firefighting, vigiles were responsible for apprehending criminals, capturing runaway slaves, guarding baths at night, and stopping disturbances of the peace. Law enforcement systems existed in ancient India, with officials like kotwals overseeing local law enforcement. The Achaemenid Empire had well-organized police forces, with each ward commanded by a Superintendent of Police known as a Kuipan, who also acted as prosecutors and carried out punishments.

Medieval Policing

In ancient Israel and Judah, officials made declarations to the people, guarded the king’s person, supervised public works, and executed court orders. Guild-like secret societies emerged in pre-colonial Africa as law enforcement, employing coercion to enforce conformity and deter antisocial behavior. Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas also had organized law enforcement. The city-states of Maya civilization had tupils, Aztec judges had officers to perform arrests, Inca officials enforced law in households, while Inca inspectors kept order in provinces.

Medieval Spain’s Santas Hermandades formed municipal leagues for peacekeeping and protection against bandits and nobility. The first recorded hermandad was formed to police the pilgrim road to Santiago de Compostela. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile established a national police force in 1479. The Vehmic courts of Germany provided policing, while the medieval Islamic Caliphates had Shurta, responsible for internal security and customs enforcement.

Modern Policing

In France, the Marshal of France and Grand Constable of France held police responsibilities. The Marshalcy was delegated to the Marshal’s provost, who commanded the Marshalcy force. The Constabulary, under the Constable of France, was regularised as a military body in 1337. Late medieval Italian cities had berovierri, police forces that enforced law and order. Individually known as birri, members of the Berovierri guarded cities, patrolled, and pursued criminals in medieval Bologna.

In England, the tithing system evolved into constables, who were elected by parishes and tax-supported. The office of justice of the peace was established, and investigative juries existed. The Assize of Arms and Statute of Winchester regulated policing between the Norman Conquest and 1829. Private watchmen emerged from around 1500, funded by private individuals and organizations. They were nicknamed ‘Charlies’, possibly after King Charles II. Thief-takers were private individuals hired by crime victims to catch thieves and return stolen property.

The first statutory police force was formed in Edinburgh in 1611, with half merchants and half craftsmen charged with enforcing regulations. In 1667, King Louis XIV created a centralized police force for Paris, with a lieutenant general de police responsible for maintaining order. In feudal Japan, samurai warriors enforced law among commoners. In France, the Prefecture of Police was established in 1800, and uniformed police were introduced in 1829.

Development of Modern Policing

In feudal Japan, yoriki (assistant magistrates) conducted investigations, while dōshin (patrolmen) patrolled streets and made arrests. The komono (non-Samurai assistants), okappiki (informers), and gōyokiki (police assistants) supported the dōshin. In Joseon-era Korea, the Podocheong emerged as a police force in 1469. In Sweden, local governments established watchmen to patrol streets, with the city guard taking over duties in the late 1500s. The Paris police force was extended to France, and other cities were created with lieutenants general of police.

A government decree introduced uniformed police in 1829. The civilian unit monitored compliance with city ordinances in Britain until the 1630s when counties were established and King’s bailiffs took over law and order. Until the early 18th century, state involvement in law enforcement was low. Private citizens had the right to prosecute crimes, and parish constables and night watchmen made arrests once the criminal was apprehended. The government offered rewards for convictions, but this led to private thief-takers who would extract payments from victims rather than catching criminals.

In 1737, George II began paying some watchmen with tax monies, and in 1749, Judge Henry Fielding organized the Bow Street Runners, Britain’s first dedicated police force. The Bow Street Runners served writs and arrested offenders on the authority of magistrates, traveling nationwide to apprehend criminals. Bow Street was a manifestation of increasing professionalization and state control of street life in London. The Macdaniel affair led to increased impetus for a publicly salaried police force that didn’t rely on rewards. In 1828, there were privately financed police units in 45 parishes within 10 miles of London.

Evolution and Modernization

The word ‘police’ was borrowed from French and initially applied only to French and continental European forces. Before the 19th century, government documents used the term ‘police’ for Scottish and Irish forces. Scotland and Ireland established their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Glasgow, Scotland, the City of Glasgow Police Act in 1800 marked the beginning of formal policing. The Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 established a Royal Irish Constabulary force with chief constables and inspectors general.

Patrick Colquhoun’s proposal for a police force at the docks led to the creation of the Marine Police in 1797. Colquhoun framed the case for the police as a means of preventing crime on economic grounds, citing British constitutional principles. The Marine Police was successful and led to the establishment of the Thames River Police in 1800. The Depredations on the Thames Act 1800 established the Thames River Police as the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun’s utilitarian approach and concept of preventive policing inspired similar forces in other cities. Sir Robert Peel’s influence led to the establishment of the Metropolitan Police Service in London in 1829.

Peel was influenced by Jeremy Bentham’s philosophy of a strong, centralized, but neutral police force for social order and protection. The Metropolitan Police Act 1829 established a new system of policing for London. Peel decided to standardize the police force as an official paid profession, to organize it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public. Due to public fears concerning the deployment of the military in domestic matters, Peel organized the force along civilian lines, rather than paramilitary. To appear neutral, the uniform was deliberately manufactured in blue, rather than red which was then a military colour, along with officers being armed only with a wooden truncheon and a rattle to signal the need for assistance.

Police ranks did not include military titles, with the exception of Sergeant. The Metropolitan Police Act 1829 created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. In 1863, the Metropolitan Police were issued with the distinctive custodian helmet, and in 1884 they switched to the use of whistles that could be heard from much further away. The Metropolitan Police became a model for police forces in many countries, including the United States and most of the British Empire. Bobbies can still be found in many parts of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Global Policing

Australia’s organized law enforcement emerged soon after British colonization began in 1788. The first law enforcement organizations were the Night Watch and Row Boat Guard, which were formed in 1789 to police Sydney. The South Australia Police was formed in 1838 under Henry Inman, while the New South Wales Police Force was established in 1862. Each Australian state and territory maintain its own police force, while the Australian Federal Police enforces laws at the federal level.

In Brazil, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited in 1566. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. In 1808, King João VI established the Intendência Geral de Polícia for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local ‘military police,’ with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852, the Federal Highway Police established in 1928, and the Federal Police in 1967.

In Lebanon, the current police force was established in 1861, with creation of the Gendarmerie. Under the Mughal Empire, provincial governors called subahdars (or nazims), as well as officials known as faujdars and thanadars were tasked with keeping law and order. The system evolved under growing British influence that eventually culminated in the establishment of the British Raj. In 1770, the offices of faujdar and amil were abolished. They were brought back in 1774 by Warren Hastings, the first Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal). In 1791, the first permanent police force was established by Charles Cornwallis, the Commander-in-Chief of British India and Governor of the Presidency of Fort William.

A single police force was established after the formation of the British Raj with the Government of India Act 1858. A uniform police bureaucracy was formed under the Police Act 1861, which established the Superior Police Services. This later evolved into the Indian Imperial Police, which kept order until the Partition of India and independence in 1947. In modern India, the police are controlled by States and union territories under State Police Services (SPS). The SPS candidates become Deputy Superintendent of Police or Assistant Commissioner of Police after probationary periods. To be nominated to Indian Police Service, officers must complete satisfactory service. The SPS service color is dark blue and red, while uniforms are khaki.

Colonial America

In Colonial America, county sheriffs were the most important law enforcement officials. They enforced laws, collected taxes, and handled legal business, but did not patrol or make arrests unless citizens reported crimes. Constables and marshals made arrests and served warrants during the day, while night watch groups patrolled at night. Municipalities formed day watch groups, and rioting was handled by local militias. In 1789, the United States Marshals Service was established, followed by federal services like Parks Police (1791) and Mint Police (1792). The U.S. Secret Service was founded in 1865 as the main investigative body for the federal government.

Modern policing influenced by British model of policing, known as Peelian principles, emerged in the mid-19th century, replacing night watch organizations with organized, professionally funded police services. Cities like Boston (1854) and New York City (1845) established full-time police departments. The Province of Carolina established slave patrols to prevent rebellions and escapes by enslaved people. The Charleston Guard and Watch had a distinct chain of command and uniforms by 1785. In Philadelphia, night watchmen and constables received wages in 1751, and the city’s Board of Wardens was created to oversee them.

Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory were incorporated into the country in 1863. The Canadian government established the North-West Mounted Police in 1873 (renamed Royal North-West Mounted Police in 1904). In 1920, the Dominion Police, and the Royal Northwest Mounted Police were amalgamated into the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). Michel Foucault’s work on the development of modern policing dates back to the 17th and 18th centuries, with key contributors including Nicolas Delamare, Philipp von Hörnigk, Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi, and Magdalene Humpert.

Modern Policing Principles

Foucault argued that the police had an administrative, economic, and social duty (‘procuring abundance’) and were responsible for demographic concerns, public health, urban planning, and surveillance of prices. The concept of preventive policing gained influence in the late 18th century, with philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and Patrick Colquhoun promoting the idea that prevention was better than punishment. Edwin Chadwick’s article on ‘Preventive police’ in 1829 argued that prevention should be the primary concern of a police body, while Robert Peel’s Metropolitan Police Act aimed to prevent crime by making it cost-ineffective. The development of modern police forces around the world was contemporary with the formation of the state, defined as achieving a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force.

Marxist theory views the modern state’s development through capitalism and its police force as a tool for subjugating the working class. The Peelian principles emphasize that the power of police is dependent on public approval, whereas policing by consent. Police forces include both preventive (uniformed) and detectives. Uniformed police respond to calls for service, prevent crime, patrol, and maintain public order. Detectives conduct investigations and detective work, making up a smaller percentage of personnel. They often wear business attire and may work undercover in cases where their presence would be intimidating.

Police forces are generally organized as a hierarchy with multiple ranks, regardless of country size. The uniformed branch is the majority and wears uniforms for recognition and response to calls. Detectives have various names and functions, including conducting investigations, managing traffic, and monitoring crowds. In the United States, there is variation in how detectives are recruited and assigned within police departments. Some countries have separate detective agencies, while others require detectives to serve in uniform before being transferred. The status of detectives varies across countries, with some having higher ranks than uniformed officers, while others have equal status.

Police services often include part-time or volunteer officers, known as reserves, auxiliary police, or special constables. These groups provide training and support for law enforcement, including disaster response and crowd control. Specialized units exist within many organizations for dealing with specific types of crime or situations requiring specialized skills, such as traffic enforcement, K9 units, and computer crime. Police departments may also have administrative duties not directly related to enforcing the law, such as issuing firearms licenses. Military police units are responsible for policing the armed forces and may be involved in various operations, including crowd control and counterinsurgency missions.

Specialized Units

A section of the military responsible for policing in both the armed forces and in the civilian population. A section of the military solely responsible for policing the civilian population. The civilian preventive police of a Brazilian state. A special military law enforcement service. Religious Police Some jurisdictions with religious laws may have dedicated religious police to enforce said laws. These religious police forces may only have jurisdiction over members of said religion or they may have the ability to enforce religious customs nationwide regardless of individual religious beliefs. Religious police may enforce social norms, gender roles, dress codes, and dietary laws per religious doctrine and laws.

Secret Police Secret police organizations are typically used to suppress dissidents for engaging in non-politically correct communications and activities. These interventions are often illegal and involve spying, deception, intimidation, framing, false imprisonment, and physical violence.

By Country

Police forces are usually organized and funded by some level of government. The level of government responsible for policing varies from place to place. Other countries have sub-national police forces, but their jurisdictions do not overlap. In Australia and Germany, state police forces are supplemented by federal police. In Canada, municipalities can choose to run local policing or contract it to a larger force like the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). The United States has a highly decentralized system with over 17,000 agencies, including federal law enforcement agencies that have jurisdiction over specific crimes. Many countries are members of Interpol, which serves as a central point for information on crime and provides international cooperation.

The terms international policing, transnational policing, and global policing refer to forms of policing that transcend national borders. These include practices like international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange, and police development-aid. Historical studies show that policing agents have undertaken cross-border police missions for many years, including surveillance of political radicals. Modern policing has increasingly crossed national boundaries in the post-Cold War era. Few empirical works on inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing have been done, but a study by James Sheptycki found that transnational police information sharing became routinized in the English Channel region from 1968 based on agreements between police agencies.

By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, there were concerns about the opacity of police intelligence sharing across Europe, raising questions about accountability mechanisms. A small-scale study confirmed this finding, noting that low visibility was a common feature in transnational policing practices. Intelligence-led policing is now widespread in advanced countries, and it’s likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange have similar morphologies worldwide. However, this process has been criticized for creating ‘organizational pathologies’ that make transnational security-intelligence processes problematic.

Transnational police development-aid to weak states is a growing concern, with the international community seeking to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in post-conflict states. This raises questions about power imbalances between donors and recipients, as well as the applicability and transportability of policing models. Making transnational policing institutions democratically accountable is also a challenge, with Interpol scoring low on overall accountability capabilities.

Overseas policing has become increasingly common, with police forces establishing presence in foreign countries without permission. This can involve coercive means to influence behavior and intimidate political dissidents.

Equipment and Technology

Police equipment varies widely across jurisdictions, but many officers carry firearms as part of their duties. Specialized units handle armed offenders or situations where combat is likely, while non-lethal weapons are used for riot control and pain infliction. Communications play a crucial role in modern policing, with extensive use of two-way radio equipment to coordinate work, share information, and get help quickly. Police equipment includes mobile data terminals, flashlights, whistles, police notebooks, ticket books, advanced computerized data display systems, and other tools. Police vehicles are modified sedans, SUVs, trucks, vans, motorcycles, bicycles, helicopters, and boats. Vehicles are used for detaining, patrolling, transporting, and responding to calls.

Strategies and Training

Police departments use strategies such as education requirements, merit systems, non-partisan boards, and recruiting high-quality officers. However, the Kansas City Preventive Patrol study found that aimless car patrols were ineffective in preventing crime and led to a social rift between law enforcement and the community.

Community Relations

The role and authority of police have become increasingly complicated since the rise of the civil rights movement, the ‘War on Drugs,’ and a surge in violent crime. To address these issues, police departments have implemented community outreach programs, diversity hiring, training updates, and increased oversight. The US Department of Justice has also brought civil lawsuits against local law enforcement agencies to compel changes. In 2020, a global movement calling for scrutiny of police violence grew, with calls for defunding or abolishing the police gaining support in the US as critics highlighted systemic racism in policing. Some argue that police abuse of power can extend beyond duty hours, including domestic violence cases involving women in officer families.

The Supreme Court has ruled that law enforcement officers have no duty to protect individuals, only to enforce the law, but some departments expect their officers to protect individuals. Police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions, such as protecting executives and foreign dignitaries. Federal agencies like the Secret Service provide protection for high-ranking individuals. Internal affairs units investigate police misconduct. Outside organizations like the Independent Office for Police Conduct or Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission also exist to oversee police conduct.

Body cameras are often used to record police interactions. Police use of force is criticized, particularly in cases involving deadly force and racial profiling incidents. Police are dangerously lacking in appropriate controls.

Conclusion

The evolution of policing has been a long journey from ancient times to the modern era. From the days of ancient Egypt where warriors patrolled with wooden sticks to the sophisticated systems we see today, the role and responsibilities of police have transformed significantly. As societies grow more complex, so too do the challenges faced by law enforcement agencies. The future of policing will likely involve continued adaptation to new technologies, evolving social norms, and a greater emphasis on community engagement and accountability.