Crime

What Exactly Is a Crime?

The Definition of Crime

In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or authority. But what exactly does this mean? The term has no universally accepted definition, and statutory definitions vary widely depending on the jurisdiction. One popular view is that a crime is created by law and includes acts harmful to individuals, communities, societies, or the state (‘public wrongs’). Acts such as murder, rape, and theft are prohibited worldwide.

Legal Perspectives

The criminal law of each jurisdiction defines what constitutes a criminal offence. The state has power to restrict liberty for committing a crime, with procedures for investigations and trials. To be classified as a crime, an act must meet two conditions: ‘actus reus’ (the physical act) and ‘mens rea’ (the intention to do something criminal). Not every violation of the law counts as a crime; breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state.

Philosophical Perspectives

The definition of crime is a philosophical issue without a universally agreed-upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime differently, considering it a wrong against individuals, communities, or states. Legalism defines crime as actions banned by authorities or punishable by law. Sociologically, crime is associated with actions causing harm and violating social norms, with societal attitudes determining what is considered criminal. Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.

The Study of Crime

The study of crime is called criminology, a subfield of sociology addressing social norms, deviance, and violence, including motivations and consequences of crime and preventative measures. Criminology includes various theories such as social control theory, subcultural theory, strain theory, differential association, and labeling theory, with subfields like crime prevention, criminal law, crime statistics, and forensic science.

Crime Statistics

Criminology is crucial for understanding the nature of crime. Crime statistics are collected by national or international agencies, but under-reporting is common, especially in developing nations. The gap between official statistics and victim studies can be significant. Public perception of crime is often shaped by media reports, which can create alarmism and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends. Selection bias in news stories over-represents violent crime and creates ‘crime wave’ effects.

The History of Crime

Restrictions on behavior existed in prehistoric societies, often addressed through custom, religion, or tribal leadership. The Code of Ur-Nammu and Hammurabi’s code influenced conceptions of crime across civilizations. The Romans systematized law and applied it to the Roman Empire, while ancient Chinese criminal justice existed for over 2,000 years. Many early conceptions of crime were associated with sin and corresponded to acts that invoked a deity’s anger. Islamic law developed its own system of criminal justice as Islam spread.

In post-classical Europe and East Asia, central government was limited, and local towns established their own criminal justice systems while defining crime in the countryside by social hierarchies. In the Russian Empire and Kingdom of Italy, feudal justice persisted into the 19th century. Common law developed in England under Henry II in the 12th century. Modern era saw crime viewed as a societal issue affecting society rather than individual conflicts. Writers like Thomas Hobbes saw crime as a societal problem from the 17th century.

Modern Developments

Urbanization and industrialization led to increased government intervention and criminology as a field of study. Cesare Lombroso popularized anthropological criminology, while eugenics held that crime was caused by genetic factors. Modernism accepted crime as a societal issue after World War II. Mass media sensationalized crimes through radio and television, creating misconceptions about crime trends. Forensic science emerged in the 1980s with DNA profiling.

Types of Crime

Crime can be categorized into various types:

  • White-collar crime: financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crimes committed by individuals, businesses, or government professionals.
  • Blue-collar crime: crimes committed by lower social classes for immediate gain.
  • Violent crime: acts of aggressive violence against another person, including homicide, assault, robbery, and sexual assault. === Property crime ===

Common examples include burglary, theft, and vandalism. Examples of financial crimes are counterfeiting, smuggling, tax evasion, and bribery. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the 17th century. In occupational crime, computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations.

Public Order Crime

Public order crimes include:

Public order crimes are associated with the broken windows theory, which posits that these crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Most nations in the Western world have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes.

Political Crime

Political crimes include:

These crimes are associated with the political agenda of a given state and are applied against political dissidents.

Inchoate Crime

Inchoate crimes include:

  • Attempt
  • Conspiracy

These crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime’s occurrence.

The Participants in Crime

Criminal: An individual who commits a crime, often carrying a pejorative connotation. Victim: An individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. Victimization is associated with post-traumatic stress and decreased quality of life. Victimology studies victims and their role in crime, and factors such as close relationships and appearance can lead to repeat victimization.

Criminological theories propose rehabilitation methods such as strengthening social networks and reducing poverty. Developed nations use financial penalties or imprisonment for punishment, while places with corruption may resort to mob rule and lynching. Financial compensation can resolve crimes in some cultures, but not others. Liability exists when an individual understands the process and has legitimate power.

International criminal law addresses genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity through treaties and international custom. Criminal behavior is determined by cost-benefit analysis, opportunity, or crime of passion. Social integration affects crime rates, while involvement in community groups decreases likelihood. Genetics may affect traits prone to crime, but no direct cause has been found.

Crime distribution shows a long tail with high recidivism and onset at younger age predicting longer criminal careers. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781135241803. Fattah, Ezzat A. (1997). Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 9781349258383. Head, Michael (2016). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317157939. Hoefnagels, G. Peter (1973). Springer Netherlands. ISBN 9789026806698. Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). ‘The Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. IX, No.’ January, pp. 105–127. Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven. (1997). ‘NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.’ Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2003). The Dynamics of Political Crime. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9780803970458.

Roth, Mitchel P. (2014). An Eye for an Eye: A Global History of Crime and Punishment. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-359-8. Shoham, Shlomo Giora; Knepper, Paul; Kett, Martin, eds. (2010). International Handbook of Criminology. CRC Press. ISBN 9781420085525. Pease, Ken. ‘Crime Science’. In Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010), pp. 3–22. Davie, Neil. ‘Born for Evil? Biological Theories of Crime in Historical Perspective’. In Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010), pp. 23–49. O’Neill, Megan. ‘The Police Response to Crime’. In Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010), pp. 483–510. Bottoms, Anthony E.; Costello, Andrew. ‘Understanding Repeat Victimization: A Longitudinal Study’. In Shoham, Knepper & Kett (2010), pp. 649–680.

Spalek, Basia (2017). Crime Victims: Theory, Policy and Practice (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137505330. Sumner, Colin, ed. (2004). The Blackwell Companion to Criminology. Wiley. ISBN 9780631220923. Lipsey, Mark W.; Landenberger, Nana A.; Chapman, Gabrielle L. ‘Rehabilitation: An Assessment of Theory and Research’. In Sumner (2004), pp. 211–227. Tonry, Michael, ed. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Crime and Public Policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199940264. Welsh, Brandon C.; Farrington, David P., eds. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Crime Prevention. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199940783.

Skogan, Wesley G. ‘Disorder and Crime’. There is no provided text to summarize. Please provide the actual text you would like me to summarize.

Condensed Infos to Crime