Affirmative action

Affirmative Action: A Comprehensive Overview

Imagine a world where everyone has an equal chance to succeed, regardless of their background or skin color. That’s the ideal that affirmative action aims to achieve. But what exactly is it? And how does it work in practice?

The Basics of Affirmative Action

Affirmative action refers to policies and practices within a government or organization seeking to address systemic discrimination. Historically, support for affirmative action has been justified by its potential to promote diversity, social equity, and redressing alleged wrongs.

Types of Policies

The nature of affirmative-action policies varies from region to region and exists on a spectrum from hard quotas to mere encouragement for increased participation. Some countries use quota systems, reserving jobs or positions for members of certain groups, while others give preference or special consideration in selection processes.

American Perspectives: A Controversial Debate

In the United States, affirmative action is a contentious issue. Supporters argue it promotes substantive equality for group outcomes and representation, while opponents claim it is a form of reverse discrimination. The term ‘affirmative action’ was first used in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy’s Executive Order No. 10925, which included provisions for ensuring fair treatment without regard to race or national origin.

Implementation and Impact

Affirmative action policies have been implemented in various ways, including quotas, specific scholarships and financial aid, marketing, training, and relaxation of selection criteria. Studies have investigated the effect of affirmative action on women, showing that it can promote occupational advancement during the 1970s and early 1980s.

Global Perspectives: A Diverse Landscape

A variant of affirmative action known as ‘positive action’ promotes equal opportunity by encouraging underrepresented groups into a field. However, some American sociologists argue that this approach is insufficient to achieve substantive equality of outcomes based on race.

Philosophical Foundations and Outcomes

The philosophical basis of affirmative action includes compensation for past discrimination, correction of current discrimination, and diversification of society. The stated justification for affirmative action by its proponents is to help compensate for past discrimination and address existing discrimination. Contractors grew their shares of professional occupations more rapidly than non-contractors due to affirmative action, but its positive effect vanished by the late 1980s.

Case Studies: From South Africa to India

In South Africa, the apartheid government favored white-owned companies, marginalizing black people and reserving skilled jobs for whites through legislation. Then the whites successfully persuaded the government to enact laws that highly restricted black employment opportunities. Since the 1960s, apartheid laws had weakened, resulting in increased wages for black manufacturing workers (50% increase) compared to white workers (1% increase).

The variation in skills and productivity between groups caused disparities in employment, occupation, and income within labor markets. Following the transition to democracy in 1994, the African National Congress-led government implemented affirmative action legislation, known as Employment Equity, to correct previous imbalances.

Challenges and Criticisms

Affirmative action was introduced through the Employment Equality Act in 1998, aiming to eliminate unfair discrimination, promote employment equity, and achieve a diverse workforce. The act’s purpose is to ensure true democracy, promote economic development, and stimulate economic growth by targeting inequality.

Global Examples

In Ghana, a new Affirmative Action Bill was passed in 2024. In China, affirmative action policies exist in education for minority nationalities. In Israel, class-based affirmative action policies were incorporated into university admissions to evaluate applicants’ eligibility. The government provides full scholarships and employment support in the civil service for Israeli citizens who are women, Arabs, Blacks, or people with disabilities.

Conclusion: A Complex but Necessary Tool

Affirmative action is a complex tool that aims to address historical injustices and promote equality. While it has faced significant criticism, its proponents argue that it remains essential for creating a more equitable society. The debate continues, but one thing is clear: the journey towards true equality is far from over.