Vietnam

Vietnam: A Country at the Crossroads

Imagine a country where history weaves through every stone and leaf, where ancient traditions meet modern progress, and where the past and future intertwine in a dance of resilience and innovation. Welcome to Vietnam, a land that has seen empires rise and fall, wars fought and won, and yet continues to thrive with an unyielding spirit.

The Land and Its People

Vietnam is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about 331,000 square kilometers. It shares land borders with China, Laos, and Cambodia, and maritime borders with Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. The capital is Hanoi, and the largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (formerly known as Saigon). With a population of over 100 million, Vietnam is home to diverse ethnic groups, including the Kinh majority and smaller communities like the Hmong, Dao, Tày, Thái, and Nùng. The name ‘Việt Nam’ means ‘South of the Viet,’ reflecting its historical position relative to China.

A Rich History

From the 3rd century BC, the term ‘Baiyue’ referred to non-Chinese populations in southern China and northern Vietnam, including ethnic groups like Minyue and Ouyue. The name ‘Việt Nam’ was first recorded in the 16th-century poem Sấm Trạng Trình and later used by Emperor Gia Long in 1802. However, he was refused the title ‘King of Nam Việt’ due to its association with Zhao Tuo’s Nanyue. Instead, the area was called ‘Việt Nam,’ meaning ‘South of the Viet.’ The name was officially used from 1804 to 1813 and revived in the early 20th century.

From Ancient Times to Modernity

The earliest humans in Vietnam date back to the Paleolithic age, around 780,000 years ago. Homo erectus fossils were found in northern Vietnam dating to around 500,000 BC. The Đông Sơn culture developed wet-rice cultivation around 1,000 BC, leading to the flourishing of early Vietnamese kingdoms like Văn Lang and Âu Lạc. According to Vietnamese legends, the Hồng Bàng dynasty established in 2879 BC is considered the first state in Vietnamese history.

Colonialism and Independence

Archaeological excavations have revealed human existence in what is now Vietnam dating back to the Paleolithic age. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia were found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces. Areas comprising what is now Vietnam participated in the Maritime Jade Road, ascertained by archeological research. The development of wet-rice cultivation led to the flourishing of Đông Sơn culture, which had a significant influence on other parts of Southeast Asia during the first millennium BC.

In AD 938, Vietnam achieved independence from China after Ngô Quyền’s victory at Bạch Đằng River. By the 960s, the Đại Việt kingdom was established, and Vietnamese society flourished under the Lý and Trần dynasties. The Trần dynasty repelled three Mongol invasions, and Buddhism became the state religion. However, Vietnam’s independence was briefly interrupted by the Ming dynasty in the 15th century, but was restored by Lê Lợi.

The Colonial Era

The Vietnamese polity reached its zenith during the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, particularly under Emperor Lê Thánh Tông. The country expanded southward through a process known as Nam tiến, conquering Champa and part of the Khmer Kingdom. From the 16th century onward, civil strife and political infighting plagued Vietnam. The Mạc dynasty challenged the Lê dynasty’s power, leading to a division between North and South Vietnam from 1600 to 1777. The Tây Sơn brothers helped end the Nguyễn lord rule, but their own rule was short-lived.

Modern Challenges

In the 17th century, European powers such as the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French began to establish trade relations with Vietnam. The Portuguese and Jesuit missionaries were active in Vietnamese realms, while the Dutch East India Company attempted to establish contact. The English eventually established relations with Tonkin in 1672.

French traders arrived in Vietnam between 1615 and 1753, and missionaries from the Paris Foreign Missions Society began arriving in the 1650s. However, Vietnamese authorities felt threatened by Christianisation activities. After several Catholic missionaries were detained in 1843, France intervened to free them due to perceived xenophobia. France conquered Vietnam’s sovereignty between 1859 and 1885, establishing colonies in Cochinchina (1862-1867) and Annam and Tonkin (1884). The French administration imposed modern education and cultural changes, but also faced guerrilla rebellions from royalists and Catholics. A nationalist movement emerged, led by figures like Phan Bội Châu and Hồ Chí Minh, which eventually split into communist and nationalist factions.

War and Reunification

Japan occupied Vietnam in 1940-1945, leading to the Vietnamese Famine, after which the Việt Minh declared independence on September 2, 1945. The French attempted to reassert control through British-Indian forces, but were ultimately defeated by the Việt Minh. Hồ initially chose a moderate stance to avoid military conflict with France, but the French refused to withdraw their colonial administrators and instead sent troops to restore rule. This led to the Việt Minh launching a guerrilla campaign against the French, which resulted in the First Indochina War.

The 1954 Geneva Conference allowed Hồ to negotiate a ceasefire and the end of colonial administration in French Indochina. Vietnam was divided into North and South regions along the 17th parallel, with a 300-day period of free movement. The partition was intended to be temporary, but in 1955, the southern government was taken over by Ngô Đình Diệm, who proclaimed himself president and effectively replaced Hồ’s Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

Post-War Developments

The North Vietnamese government instituted agrarian reforms, which led to significant political repression and executions. In the South, Diệm countered communist subversion by detaining suspected communists in ‘political reeducation centres.’ The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in these centres by November 1957.

In the late 1950s, the Việt Cộng began a guerrilla campaign against Diệm’s government. In 1963, Buddhist discontent led to mass demonstrations and Diệm’s assassination. The US increased its military involvement in South Vietnam, with over 500,000 troops stationed there by the mid-1960s. China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with material aid and combat advisers.

The communists launched the 1968 Tết Offensive against South Vietnamese targets, marking a significant escalation of the conflict. The campaign failed militarily but shocked US public opinion against the war. US troops withdrew from ground combat roles in the early 1970s as domestic opposition rose. The Paris Peace Accords led to a withdrawal of American forces by March 1973, but North Vietnam continued its offensive. In 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Modern Challenges

The war killed an estimated 966,000 to 38 million people. A new government implemented collectivisation, reeducation camps, and mass campaigns that led to widespread suffering and migration. Reformist politicians introduced Đổi Mới in the 1980s, implementing a market-oriented economy with state control. General Secretary Nguyễn Văn Linh was replaced by Nguyễn Phu Trong, who became Vietnam’s most powerful leader in decades.

Natural Beauty and Biodiversity

Mountains account for 40% of the country’s land area, and tropical forests cover around 42%. The Red River Delta in the north is smaller but more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta in the south. Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, mountains, and extensive forests. The highlands account for 16% of arable land and 22% of total forested land.

Fansipan is the highest mountain in Vietnam at 3,143m. The country has numerous islands, including Phú Quốc, and the Hang Sơn Đoòng Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the world.

Climate and Environment

Vietnam’s climate varies considerably due to differences in latitude and topographical relief. The country receives high rates of precipitation, especially during monsoon seasons, which causes flooding. The country is also vulnerable to tropical depressions, storms, and typhoons.

Biodiversity and Conservation

As part of the Indomalayan realm, Vietnam has a uniquely high level of biodiversity, with 55% of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas. It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world’s species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, of which 10% are endemic.

Vietnam’s fauna includes 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113 springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. There are 840 birds and 310 mammals found in Vietnam, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.

Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites—the Hạ Long Bay and Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park—together with nine biosphere reserves. The country is also home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species.

Modern Challenges

A small population of Javan rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park but the last individual was reportedly shot in 2010. Vietnam is one of the world’s twelve original cultivar centres with a gene bank preserving 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.

The Vietnamese government has established 126 conservation areas, including 30 national parks, and spent US$49.07 million on biodiversity preservation in 2004 alone. A study revealed Vietnam is a destination for the illegal export of rhinoceros horns due to demand as a medicine and status symbol.

The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of Agent Orange use during the Vietnam War, causing birth defects and health problems. The US has begun a US$43 million joint clean-up project in former chemical storage areas since 2012. The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ10 trillion each year for monthly allowances and physical rehabilitation of victims of chemicals.

A plant for treating soil polluted by Agent Orange was built by the Japanese engineering group Shimizu Corporation in 2018. The Vietnamese government is also replanting mangrove forests to mitigate flood conditions. The country has a low forest landscape integrity index score of 35/10, ranking 104th globally. Arsenic contamination and unexploded ordnance pose concerns in the Mekong and Red River Deltas. Vietnam spends billions of dollars annually on demining operations.

Government and Politics

The government of Vietnam has a totalitarian system with an authoritarian nature that carries legacies from its past; human rights issues concern freedom of assembly, association, speech, religion, and press. The CPV is the only allowed party to rule, other political parties are outlawed, and lawyer Lê Công Định was arrested for subversion in 2009.

Throughout Vietnam’s history, its main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties. Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam maintained relations with the Eastern Bloc, South Vietnam maintained relations with the Western Bloc. Despite these differences, Vietnam’s sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries.

Vietnam holds membership in 63 international organisations, including the United Nations (UN), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), International Organisation of the Francophonie (La Francophonie), and World Trade Organization (WTO). The country declares itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community.

Vietnam’s current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development. Relations with the United States began improving in August 1995, and full diplomatic relations were restored in 2000. In May 2016, US President Barack Obama further normalised relations with Vietnam.

Military and Defense

The Vietnam People’s Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People’s Army (VPA), the Vietnam People’s Public Security and the Vietnam Self-Defence Militia. The VPA is subdivided into several branches and has an active manpower of around 450,000. Joint military exercises and war games have been held with Brunei, India, Japan, Laos, Russia, Singapore and the US. In 2017, Vietnam signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Economy

Vietnam’s economy has a long history based on agriculture and mining; since reunification, it has been shaped by the CPV through Five Year Plans. The collectivisation of farms, factories, and capital goods led to inefficiency, corruption, and poor quality under state control. However, the introduction of socialist-oriented market economic reforms in 1986 led to private ownership being encouraged, and state enterprises were restructured to operate under market constraints.

Vietnam achieved significant GDP growth between 1990 and 1997, and later recovered from an economic slowdown caused by the Asian financial crisis in 1999. The country became a member of the WTO in 2007, and its economy grew at around 7% per year from 2000 to 2005. Deep poverty has declined significantly due to equitable economic policies that aim to improve living standards and prevent inequality.

Vietnam is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia, with significant agricultural exports including cashew nuts, black pepper, coffee, tea, rubber, and fishery products. The country has a strong tourism industry, with 7.94 million foreign visitors in 2015. Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products, but its share of GDP from agriculture has declined over the years. The country’s fisheries sector has seen significant growth, and it is working to develop its space flight program. Vietnam also has a growing science and technology sector, with notable contributions in mathematics, robotics, and innovation, including the development of messaging apps and diagnostic equipment.

Transportation

Tourism is an important element of economic activity in Vietnam, contributing 7.5% to GDP. In 2017, the country hosted approximately 13 million tourists, with most coming from Asia and Europe. The top destinations are Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi, and Ha Long Bay, which are among the world’s top 100 most visited cities.

Vietnam’s transportation network was developed during the French colonial era and has since been extensively expanded and modernized. The country has a total of 188,744 kilometers of roads, with asphalt roads making up 93,535 kilometers. Bicycles, motorcycles, and motor scooters are the most popular forms of road transport, but private car ownership is increasing.

Public buses operate as the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population, while traffic collisions remain a major safety issue. Traffic congestion is a growing problem in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, especially with individual car ownership. Vietnam’s primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express, which runs from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi.

In 2009, Vietnam signed an agreement with Japan to build a high-speed railway using Japanese technology. Vietnamese engineers received training in Japan on high-speed trains. A planned express route would run from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City with trains reaching speeds of 350 km/h. However, plans have been postponed due to prioritizing metro development and road networks.

Vietnam has 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi Bai, Da Nang International Airport, and Tan Son Nhat. The country aims to expand its airport network with seven new international airports by 2025.

Energy

Vietnam Airlines operates 86 passenger aircraft and plans to increase its fleet to 170 by 2020. Several private airlines also operate in the country, including Air Mekong, Bamboo Airways, Jetstar Pacific Airlines, VASCO, and VietJet Air.

Energy Sector

The energy sector is dominated by Vietnam Electricity Group (EVN), which generates about 61.4% of the country’s power. Most power comes from hydropower or fossil fuels, with diesel and renewable energy making up a smaller portion.

Culture and Society

Vietnam’s national language is Vietnamese, a tonal Austroasiatic language. Minority groups speak various languages, including Tày, Mường, Cham, and others. French, Russian, German, Czech, Polish, and English are also widely spoken as second languages.

The country has full membership in the International Organisation of the Francophonie, and education has led to a revival of interest in the French language. Other languages like Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin Chinese have gained popularity due to strengthening ties with East Asian nations.

Religion

Vietnam’s 2007 survey shows that 81% of citizens do not believe in a god, enjoying freedom of belief and religion under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution. Based on government findings in 2009, the number of religious people increased by 932,000.

The official statistics indicate the overall number of followers of recognized religions is about 24 million of a total population of almost 90 million. Buddhists account for 4.79% of the total population, Catholics 6.1%, Protestants 1.0%, Hoahao Buddhists 1.02%, and Caodaism followers 0.58%. The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organized religion, though many observe some form of Vietnamese folk religion.

Education

The government is intervening with regulations, public transportation development, and waste handling to decrease air pollution and increase waste sorting among locals.

Healthcare

Vietnam has made progress in reducing poverty and improving access to basic services such as water. However, the country still struggles with issues such as inadequate funding, a shortage of healthcare professionals, and ongoing impacts from the use of herbicides during the war.

The country has also made strides in combating diseases such as malaria, but faces challenges with tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. The government has implemented vaccination programs, improved hygiene, and received foreign assistance to combat these diseases. More global aid is being delivered through The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria in Vietnam to fight the spread of the disease.

Cuisine

Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste elements: spicy, sour, salty, bitter, and sweet, using common ingredients like fish sauce, rice, and fresh herbs. The use of meats was limited in the past, with freshwater fish, crustaceans, and molluscs being widely used instead.

Vietnamese cuisine features dishes like gỏi cuốn, bánh cuốn, bún riêu, and phở noodles, which originated in the north and spread to other regions. Local foods in the north are often less spicy than those in the south. Vietnamese drinks include cà phê đá, cà phê trứng, và các loại nước uống khác.

Culture

Vietnamese culture is considered part of Sinosphere, with influences from Chinese and Indian cultures. The country’s culture focuses on humanity and harmony, with reverence for cultural symbols such as the dragon, turtle, buffalo, and horse. Traditional clothing includes áo dài, áo tứ thân, and yếm. Vietnamese literature has a rich history, dating back to the 10th century, with notable authors including Nguyễn Trãi and Hồ Xuân Hương.

Music

Vietnamese folk music includes Nhã nhạc, Chèo, Xẩm singing, Quan họ, and Hát chầu văn. Traditional instruments include the đàn bầu, đàn gáo, and đàn nguyệt. Vietnamese cuisine is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide, using minimal oil and relying on fresh ingredients.

Conclusion

Vietnam, a land of rich history, vibrant culture, and resilient people, continues to evolve while preserving its heritage. From ancient traditions to modern advancements, Vietnam stands as a testament to the enduring spirit of a nation that has faced challenges but remains steadfast in its pursuit of progress and unity.