Portraits of Odaenathus

Unveiling the Face of Odaenathus: A King’s Legacy Through Art

Imagine stepping back into the ancient world, where a powerful king named Odaenathus ruled over Palmyra from 260 to 267 CE. His story is woven through various sculptures, seal impressions, and mosaic pieces that have survived the test of time. But how do we truly see this historical figure? Through his portraits, of course! These artifacts offer us a glimpse into the life and reign of Odaenathus, who challenged Persian authority with his title ‘King of Kings.’

Two marble heads stand out as more likely accurate representations of Odaenathus. They showcase a high level of detail, reflecting his royal attire. Other depictions, such as tesserae and mosaic panels, also hint at his presence but are less certain. The lack of clearly attributed busts or statues makes it challenging to pinpoint the exact appearance of this influential ruler.

One intriguing piece is the Copenhagen sculpture, featuring a miniature bust in the center of a wreath with hollowed-out eyes that held glass paste. This head has an inlaid iris and pupil, which is rare in Palmyrene sculptures. Some archaeologists believe it was part of a console statue honoring a notable Palmyrene, while others propose it was sculpted during Emperor Decius’ time.

The Istanbul sculpture shares similar features but lacks certain details due to abrasion. Both heads were likely part of a monumental kline (sarcophagus lid) in an exedra tomb, with the hexagonal tomb portraits being full replicas intended to represent the same person. The Damascus museum’s portrait is 33 centimeters tall and represents an older man with deep wrinkles, while another limestone head at the Benaki Museum in Athens shows advanced age and a similar style to the Copenhagen and Istanbul portraits.

Marble was used as a symbol of prestige, and most Palmyrene sculptures were made of limestone. A tiara portrait from the 1940s features an oval face with a drooping curved moustache, broken nose, wide open eyes, and strong eyebrows. The craftsmanship is remarkable, reflecting nobility of expression.

Limestone portraits had multiple interpretations, and their purpose is unclear. Gawlikowski proposed that they were connected to funeral practices such as sarcophagus lids. Simonsen suggested the Copenhagen portrait belonged to an honorary statue set on a bracket but was doubtful due to its weight. Balty concluded that the missing part of the headdress which fit into the turban was a royal tiara or mitre, reminiscent of similar crowns worn by many contemporary Eastern monarchs.

A 27-centimetre-tall marble head portrait in the Palmyra Museum (Inv. B 459/1662) apparently was part of a life-sized statue. The hair begins on the centre top of the head with long sparse strands, which are carved flat and held by a diadem. The beard binds to the hair at the temples and is placed low on the cheeks with a stiff, clean cut. The forehead is furrowed by deep lines beginning at the top of the nose.

Balty considered it likely that this portrait depicts Odaenathus, noting similarities to the tiara portrait: wide open eyes and intense gaze. The most noticeable difference is the simpler hairstyle of the diadem portrait; Balty suggested if the hairstyle difference makes it necessary to ascribe the diadem portrait to a different man than the tiara portrait, Odaenathus’ viceroy Septimius Worod is a suitable candidate.

Palmyrene tesserae are small tokens with various designs. Some depict Odaenathus: Tessera RTP 4 shows a king in a heavily built face, full beard, and thick hair or headdress; on the other side, it has the profile of a mature bearded man wearing a royal diadem and a triangular earring.

Tessera RTP 5 depicts a king in a tiara on one side; a ball of hair in chignon style is attached to the back of the head. The king’s iconography is similar to the portrait of Herodianus on a lead token, leading authors to postulate Odaenathus’ presence but Gawlikowski disagreeing, stating the face depicted was youthful and couldn’t be Odaenathus.

Tessera RTP 736 depicts two men reclining on a couch in priestly attire, possibly identifying Hairan I as Herodianus or his son Hairan II. The tesserae show the king and his successors on both sides without royal attributes, possibly dating to the late 250s.

A mosaic floor was discovered in Palmyra; it features geometric compositions surrounding a rectangular panel with two panels of equal dimensions, depicting ‘La chasse au tigre’ (The Tiger Hunt) and ‘Le tableau de Bellérophon’ (The Panel of Bellerophon).

‘The Tiger Hunt’ panel shows a galloping rider attacking a rearing tiger, possibly symbolizing Odaenathus’ victory over Shapur I. The inscription is Palmyrene cursive but has errors that suggest it was added later.

‘Bellerophon’ depicts the hero riding Pegasus, piercing the Chimera with his lance. Bellerophon wears Parthian court attire and is distinguished from European representations. The shape of an ancient helmet has no parallel in contemporary military use but is reminiscent of rare Hellenistic samples from Pergamon.

A prophecy from the thirteenth Sibylline Oracle mentions a powerful lion who will destroy the greatest beast, described as venomous and fearful, possibly representing Shapur I.

A wall painting from Dura-Europos depicts a Roman soldier offering a sacrifice to a deity with a Palmyrene figure, which is considered tentative to be an image of Odaenathus’ victory over Shapur I.

The Palmyra museum holds portraits that are similar in style and were produced in the same workshop. These artifacts offer us a window into the life and reign of this influential king, helping us piece together his legacy through the art he left behind.